Resume : The Norton Introduction To Literature SHORTER EIGHTH EDITION

The Norton Introduction To Literature
SHORTER EIGHTH EDITION

Paul Hunter, Jerome Beaty, Alison Booth, Kelly J. Mays, W.W. Norton & Company Inc. London, 8th Ed. 1973. (1781 pages)
Summarized By Dedi Suhendar 204102322 Student of English Departemnt Adab Faculty and Humanity UIN Sunan Gunung Djati Bandung. 2009

FICTION

Plot
Plot Simply Means the arrangement of the action, n imagined event or a series of such events. Conflict a struggle between opposing force, and it often falls into something like the same five parts that we find in play: exposition, rising action, turning point (or climax), falling, conclusion. Exposition, introduce the character, situation, and time. Rising action, events that complicate the situation and intensify or complicate the conflict or introduce new ones. The Turning Point or climax of the action is the third part of the story, the appearance of the storyteller. The forth act named falling Action. Conclusion, the point at which the situation that was established at the beginning of the story become stable once more. The history has been structured into plot.

Narration and point of View
Narrative, unlike drama, is always mediated. In narrative, someone is always between us and the event-a viewer-, a speaker, or both. The Viewing aspect is called the focus; and the verbal aspect the voices, both are generally lumped together in the term point of flew. The teller of a story or novel-the voice that speak all the words we read in it-is called the narrator. First of view may be limited to a first-person narrator. Sometime such a narrator addresses an auditor, an audience within the fiction whose possible reaction is part of the story. When we resist a narrator’s point of view and judge his or her flaws or misperception, we call that narrator unreliable. Many narrative, from novels to short stories to film, focus on a centered or central consciousness, filtering thing, people, and events through an individual character’s perception and responses. Its is more prudent, therefore, especially on the basis of single story, to speak not of the author but of the author persona, is the voice of figure of the author who tells and structure the story, who may not resemble in the nature or values the actual person of the author. Character; someone who act, appears, or is referred to as playing a part in a literary work. The most common term for the character with the leading male role is hero, who opposes with him called the villain, and the leading female character is the heroine. Heroes and heroines are usually larger than life, stronger or better than most human being, almost godlike. Antihero he opposes the hero because he is not heroic in structure or perfection, is not so clearly or simply or we call it protagonist, who’s opponent with the antagonist. The major or main character are those we see more of over a longer period of time we learn more about them, and we think of them as more complex and, therefore frequently more “realistic” than the minor character, the figures who fill out the story. An influential critic say are round character, whereas character that, are not very complex and do not change in surprising ways, are flat. Characterization the art, craft, method of presentation, or creation of fictional personage-involves a similar process, character are almost inedibility inevitable identified by category-by sex, age, nationally, occupation, and so on.

Setting
All stories like all individuals are embedded in a context or setting- a time and place, the time can be contemporary or even mythically vague. The place can be rather fixed an interior or varied. The individuals in the stories are embedded in the specific context, and the more we know of the setting, and of the relationship of the character to the setting, the more likely we are to understand the character and the story.

Symbol
The symbol commonly defined as something that stands for something else. Symbol are generally figurative, that is they compare or put together two unlike thing. When figure is expressed as an explicit comparison, often signaled by like or as, it is called a smile. An implicit comparison or identification of one thing with another unlike itself, without a verbal signal but just seeming to say A is B, is called a metaphor. An Allegory is like a metaphor in that one thing (usually no rational, abstract, religious) is implicitly spoken of in term of something that is concrete and usually sensuous (perceptible by the sense), but the comparison in allegory is extended to include a whole work or a large portion of a work. When an entire story like with the other story is symbolic, it sometimes called a myth. Myth originally meant a story of communal origin that provide an explanation or religious interpretation of man, nature, the universe, and the relation between them. A plot or character element that recurs in cultural or cross-cultural myth, such as images of the devil as in the other story is now widely called an archetype.

Theme
Some refer to the central idea, the thesis, or even the message of the story, and that is roughly what we mean by theme; generalization or abstraction from the story. Aided footnotes, perhaps, you likely noticed the allusion-reference to history, the bible, literature, and painting. So, allusion as well as symbol, plot, focus and voice, and character are element that contribute to and must be accounted for in paraphrasing a theme.
Exploring Contexts
Embodying these larger concern and underlying such larger structures as plot, focus, and voice are the basic characteristic of the author’s language, such as diction, the choice and use of word, sentence structure, rhetorical tropes, figures of thought and speech, imagery and rhythm in other word, the author’s style. We can broadly characterize diction as formal or informal and within the broad term informal we can identify a level of language that approximates the speech of ordinary people and call it colloquial. Diction and sentence structure contribute to the tone of a work, or the implied attitude or stance of the author toward the character and events, and aspect somewhat analogous to tone of voice. If the language seems exaggerated, we call it overstatement, or hyperbola. Sometimes it will be the narrator, a character, who uses language so intensive or exaggerated that must read it at a discount, as it were, and judge the speaker accuracy or honesty in the process. When word expression carries not only its literal meaning but a different meaning for the speaker as well, we have an example of verbal irony. There also nonverbal form of irony, the most common of which is dramatic irony, in which a character hold a position or has an expectation that is reversed or fulfilled in an unexpected way.

Literary Kind as Context
Initiation Stories
The term genre for the largest commonly agreed on –categories; fiction, poetry, drama. We use the term sub genre for the division within a genre-sub genres of fiction, for example, are novel, novella, short story, and so on. Initiation story, in which a character-often but not always a child or young person-first learn, or a significant truth about the universe, reality, society, people, himself or herself.

Form as Context
The Short Short Story
There have been many attempts to explain this phenomenon, explanations ranging from the shrinking attention span “cause’ by television, to the hurried, fragmented nature of contemporary life, to our disenchantment with lengthy explanation of behavior by psychologist, politician, and novelist. There have also been attempt to define the form generality; its boundaries have been those of the anecdote, the vignette, the parable, the poem, and the short story proper; yet all these borders have been contested.

Critical Contexts
A Fiction Casebook
In each (literary wok) there is something (an individual intuition-or concept which can revere be expressed in other term) it is like, which cannot be expressed by rational numbers but only as their limit. Criticism of (literature) is like 1.424 …. Or 3.1415 …. Not all it would be, yet all that can be had and very useful.

Evaluating Fiction
To evaluate a work of literature-to asses its it worth or quality is one the most fundamental, significant, and difficult activities in literary stuffy. We must to listen to the other reader response too those of our classmates, professors, professional critics like those in the previous chapter-responses that may reinforce our own, may show us thing to appreciate in the story that we missed, or may challenge the viability of our reason, if not that of our responses.

POETRY

Reading, Responding, writing
According to Robert Frost, poetry is a way of taking life by the throat. Poem perhaps even more than other texts can sharpen your reading skill because they tend be so compact, so fully depend on concise expression of feeling. N poem, ideas and feeling are packed lightly into just a few lines.
According to Emily Dickinson, if a feel physically as if the top of my head were taken off, I know that is poetry. The poem we have looked at so far all describe, though in quite different ways, feelings associated with loving or being attached to someone and the expression-either physical or verbal-of those feeling.
There is the example of question that could lead you to a paper topic on the first poem on the page:
1. How does the title affect your reading of and response to the poem?
2. What is the poem about?
3. What makes the poem interesting?
4. Who is the speaker? What role does the speaker have?
5. What effect does poem have on you? Do you think the poet intended such an effect?
6. What is distinctive about the poet use of language? Which word especially contributes to the poem’s effect?

Understanding The Text
Poetry is full of surprise. Poems express anger or outrage just as effectively as love or sadness, and good poem can be written about going to a rock or having lunch or cutting the lawn, as well as about making love or smelling flower or listening to Beethoven. What a poem says involves its theme, a statement about its subject. How a poem makes that statement involves its tone, the attitude or feeling it express about the theme.

Situation and Setting
Question about the speaker (“who” question) in a poem almost always lead to question of “where?” “When” and “why”? Identifying the speaker usually is, in fact, part of larger process of defining the entire imagined situation in a poem: what is happening? Where it happening? Who is the speaker speaking to? Who else is present? Why is this occurring? And don’t forget to establish, the Situation, time and place in your critic or paper analysis.

Language
Fiction and drama depend upon language just as poetry just as poetry does, but in poem almost everything comes down to the particular meaning and implication of individual word. Precision and ambiguity let’s look first that creates some of their effect by examining or playing with a single word. Often multiple meaning or shiftiness and uncertainty of a word are at issue. The Language of Description; the language of poetry is almost always visual and pictorial. Rather than depending primary on abstract ideas and elaborate reasoning, poem depend mainly on concrete and specific word that create image in our minds.

Metaphor and Smile
Being visual does not just mean describing; telling us fact, indicating shapes, color and specific details, and giving us precise discrimination through exacting verb, noun, adverb, and adjectives. Often the vividness of the picture in our mind depends upon comparison through figure speech.

Symbol
Is, put simply, something that stands for something else. The everyday world is full of common examples, a flag, a logo, a trademark, or a skull and crossbones all suggest thing beyond themselves, and everyone likely understand what their display indicates, whether or not each viewer shares a commitment to what the object represent.

The Sound of Poetry
A lot of what happen in a poem happens in your mind’s eye, but some of it happens in your voice. Poems are full of sound and silence as well as word and sentence that are meaningful.

Words and Music
The most fundamental link between poetry and music involves their almost equal dependence on the principles of rhythm. Poem composed to or for music tend differ form poem that produce or rely on rhythmic, harmonic or musical effect created solely by words themselves.

Internal Structure
Proper word in popular place; that is how one great writer of English prose, Jonathan swift, describe good writing. A good poet finds appropriate word, and already we have looked at some implication for reader of the verbal choice a poet makes. But the poet must also decide where to put those words-how to arrange them for maximum effect-because individual words’ metaphor, and symbol exist not only within phrase and sentence and rhythmic patterns but also within the larger whole of the poem.

External Form
Most poems of more than a few lines are divided into stanza group of line divided form other groups by white space on the page. Putting some space between groupings of line has the effect of sectioning a poem, giving its physical appearance a series of in structure of direction. Terza rima the stanza are linked to each other by a common sound, on rhyme form each stanza is picked up in the next stanza and so on to the end of poem (though sometimes poems have section that use varies rhyme schemes). Some English poets (especially in the Renaissance did experiment-very successfully-with blank verse (that is, verse that did not rhyme but that nevertheless had strict metrical requirements), but the cultural pressure for rhyme was almost constant.

The Sonnet
The sonnet, one the most persistent verse form, originated in the Middle Ages as a prominent form in Italian and French poetry. It dominated English poetry in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries and then was revived several time form the early-nineteenth century on ward. on the other, the fundamental break is between the first eight line (called an octave) and the last six (called a sestet). The 4-4-4-2, sonnet is usually called the English or Shakespearian sonnet, and ordinarily its rhyme scheme reflect the structure; the scheme of abab cdcd efef gg is the classic one, but many variation form that pattern still reflect the basic 4-4-4-2 division.

Stanza Forms
Different culture and differ language develop their own patterns and measure-not all poetries are parallel to English poetry-and they vary form age to age as well as nation/. We can probably duce the principle involved in each of the following stanza or verse form by looking carefully at poem that uses it, heroic couplet, tetrameter couplet, limerick, free verse, and blank verse.

DRAMA

Reading, Responding and Writing
Play are generally written to be performed by actors, on a stage, for an audience playwright create plays fully conscious of the possibilities that go beyond word and texts and extend to physical action, stage devices, and other bits of theatricality that can be used to create special effect and modified responses. Consequently, responding to a stage production of a play involves physical sense as well as the imagination.
Character
Someone who appears in a work is called a character, the same word we use to refer to those qualities of mind, spirit, and behavior that make one individual different form every other.
The main character, and most plays fulfill the expectation created by their titles, the main character (or protagonist) is not only the center of the action, but is also the chief object of the playwright (and the reader’s or audience’s) concern. Definition the character of the protagonist (sometimes by comparison with a competitor, or antagonist) often becomes the consuming interest of the play, and the action seems designed to illustrate, or clarify, or develop that character, or sometimes to make him or her a complex, unfathomable, mysterious being. Characterization in a play involves more than protagonist or antagonist, heroes and heroines or villains. To imagines the play and make sense of the action, structure, and theme of the work, we must play attention to the supporting o minor character as well as to the leading figures.
Stages, Sets, and Setting.
There are other types of modern stage – the thrust stage, where the audience sits around three side of major acting area, and the arena stage, where the audience sits all the way around the acting area and players make their entrances and their exist through the auditorium-but most plays are staged on proscenium stage. This unity of time, one of the so-called classical unities, implies a dramatist to select the moment when a stable situation should change and to fill in the necessary prior details by exposition or even by some more elaborate devices. Theme usually defined as a generalized or abstract paraphrase of the subject of a work-is by its very nature the most comprehensive of he element, embracing, as its definition suggest, the entire work.

Tragedy and Comedy
Tragedy and comedy are two of the oldest dramatic form, and many contemporary playwright and critic continue to apply these term. Many people believe that tragedy and comedy still provide convenient way to organized and present experience because they testify to, can sometimes get in a pretty lively argument about weather a particular play should be called a tragedy. According to Aristotle, “comedy aims at representing man as worse, tragedy as better than in actual life.”

Social and Historical Setting
Three different levels of time operate in most plays. First, a play text represent some particular time-temporal setting-in which the action takes place. We can call this plot time. Second, that text reflects the time find their way into the conception and style of the text. This feature of textual time we may call authorial time. Third, reader read in a particular time frame, when conditions an assumption and assumption then may differ from those that obtain in either the text’s present or the author’s present. We may call this reader time.
According to T.S. Eliot, Play, should give you sometimes to think about. When I see a play and understand it the first time, then I know it can’t be much good.